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Kaum beachtet von der Weltöffentlichkeit, bahnt sich der erste internationale Strafprozess gegen die Verantwortlichen und Strippenzieher der Corona‑P(l)andemie an. Denn beim Internationalem Strafgerichtshof (IStGH) in Den Haag wurde im Namen des britischen Volkes eine Klage wegen „Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit“ gegen hochrangige und namhafte Eliten eingebracht. Corona-Impfung: Anklage vor Internationalem Strafgerichtshof wegen Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit! – UPDATE

Radio MĂŒnchen · Argumente gegen die Herrschaft der Angst - Dr. Wolfgang Wodarg im GesprĂ€ch


Libera Nos A Malo (Deliver us from evil)

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FIFA’s Neutrality Trap

The World Cup in Canada, Mexico, and the United States came to an end yesterday. Beyond being one of the world’s biggest sporting events, the tournament also brought renewed attention to unresolved legal questions concerning freedom of expression in FIFA stadiums. The dispute over the historic Iranian Lion and Sun flag during Iran’s World Cup matches is a case in point. It raises the question of how far FIFA may go in restricting political symbols inside stadiums and what legal status fans have once they pass through the stadium gate.

Shortly before Iran’s opening match against New Zealand at SoFi Stadium in Los Angeles, Sam Kermanian and the Institute for Voices of Liberty petitioned the Los Angeles Superior Court to stop FIFA and related local actors from excluding spectators who displayed the historic Lion and Sun flag. The plaintiffs framed the flag as symbolic speech against the Islamic Republic and in support of democratic reform. FIFA and FWC2026 defended the restriction as a safety and admission policy for a private, ticketed event. Shortly before kickoff, Judge Curtis Kin denied emergency relief, leaving FIFA’s policy on political symbols in place. Bloomberg Law reported on the ruling and the disputed policy.

Underneath this specific dispute sits a broader tension. A World Cup fan enters the stadium in two capacities at once. As a ticket-holder, bound by FIFA’s venue code, security instructions and private access laws. And as a participant in a global public event, carrying identity, memory, nationality, dissent, and sometimes human-rights claims into one of the most visible spaces in sport.

The 2026 flag disputes expose the friction between these two legal identities. When fan expression matches FIFA’s official language of inclusion, the fan is treated as a rights-holder. When fan expression contests the official identity of a participating state, the same fan can be reduced to a ticket-holder subject to private stadium control. The ticket gives FIFA authority over access. Yet, it does not give FIFA a blank cheque to treat peaceful political expression as a threat.

The court’s refusal to intervene before kickoff exposes the institutional weakness of emergency litigation and, more importantly, the normative gaps in FIFA’s own speech policy. Judicial review cannot substitute for a rights-sensitive framework. Because FIFA effectively regulates expression in one of the world’s most visible public arenas, it should build its stadium speech rules through a transparent, rights-based process.

The Harder Free Speech Case

In his recent Verfassungsblog post, Daniel Rietiker rightly starts by drawing the line between hate speech and legitimate activism at the 2026 World Cup. Hate speech is incompatible with football and must be banned from stadiums. This includes racist chanting, antisemitic symbols, homophobic abuse, targeted intimidation and incitement to violence.

The harder question is peaceful political expression that can embarrass states, challenge official symbols or allow diasporic communities to contest who gets to speak for a nation. The Lion and Sun flag is none of the things hate speech is. It is not racist chanting, not homophobic abuse, not harassment of players, not a call to violence. It is, as the plaintiffs argued, a diasporic symbol of opposition to the Islamic Republic and support for democratic reform.

That does not mean FIFA must permit it in every size, location or circumstance. However, it does mean that the word “political” cannot end the legal inquiry on its own.

The Ticketed Fan

FIFA’s strongest argument for banning “political” symbols starts with the ticket. A World Cup match is not a public square. SoFi Stadium is access-controlled. Entry is conditional. Fans arrive through a contract formed by the ticket terms and the Stadium Code. Within that framework, FIFA can argue that access is governed by private venue rules rather than public-forum doctrine. Any serious free-speech argument has to concede the force of that point.

California law protects freedom of expression more broadly than the federal First Amendment in some private-property contexts, most famously in the PruneYard case. But a stadium behind a ticket gate is not a shopping center. FIFA may regulate objects that block views, obstruct exits, threaten spectators or create genuine risks of violence. Still, the private-law framework is incomplete on its own. The ticket is not a negotiated agreement between equals; it is a contract of adhesion. Fans either accept FIFA’s terms or lose access to one of the world’s most visible cultural events. The ticket is the legal gate through which the fan enters. It should not become the device through which FIFA strips fans of their public identity.

The Rights-Bearing Fan

FIFA cannot rely on private ordering alone, because its own institutional commitments point elsewhere. Article 3 of the FIFA Statutes commits FIFA to respecting all internationally recognized human rights and promoting their protection. FIFA’s human-rights materials tie that commitment to the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.

This does not make FIFA a state actor under California law, and it does not erase venue safety or mean every spectator may bring every symbol into every match. But once FIFA claims to govern a rights-respecting World Cup, it cannot then treat stadium speech as a matter of contract, property and security alone. Fan expression needs to be assessed through a rights-based method.

That method involves identifying the expression and the legitimate aim for restricting it, establishing whether the restriction is necessary, assessing proportionality in relation to a specific risk, and applying the rule consistently. The UN Human Rights Committee’s General Comment No. 34 treats legality, legitimate aim, necessity and proportionality as core requirements for restrictions on expression.

FIFA’s current policy does not clearly meet this standard. FWC2026’s opposition quoted the relevant rule directly: ticketholders may not bring in banners, flags, flyers, apparel or other paraphernalia that are “political, offensive, and/or discriminatory.” The same policy also refers to discrimination based on protected grounds including political opinion, other opinions, sexual orientation and gender identity. That is the core legal problem. FIFA is not merely regulating objects. It combines different legal categories into one administrative label.

The Category Mistake

Political expression, offensive expression, discriminatory expression and operational risk are not the same problem. Discriminatory expression can target protected groups. Threatening expression can endanger players, officials or spectators. Harassing expression can create a hostile environment for identifiable individuals. Operationally unsafe material can block exits, obstruct sightlines, conceal objects or disrupt crowd flow. These are all legitimate concerns.

Peaceful political expression is a different matter. It may embarrass governments, divide spectators or complicate FIFA’s preferred image of harmony. But political discomfort is not the same as violence, discrimination, harassment or safety risk. U.S. free-speech doctrine, while not directly binding on FIFA as a private association, draws this line sharply. In Spence v Washington the flag display was treated as symbolic expression because the speaker intended to convey a message that was likely to be understood, given the circumstances. In Texas v Johnson the Court rejected suppressing an idea simply because it was offensive or disagreeable. Matal v Tam went even further and stated that causing offense itself is a form of expression.

None of these cases settles the Los Angeles dispute directly. But they identify the principles missing from FIFA’s rule. If the concern is obstruction, regulate the size and placement. If the concern is violence, identify threats or incitement. If the concern is discrimination, identify the protected group and the discriminatory content. What FIFA should not do is treat political meaning itself as the danger.

The policy also contradicts itself internally. It treats political opinion as both a protected ground and a prohibited stadium attribute. A fan’s political opinion may be exactly why that fan is vulnerable, especially when the expression contests an authoritarian state’s claim to represent the nation. A rule that protects “political opinion” from discrimination while banning “political” material without further analysis risks turning protection into pure discretion.

The Stadium Is Already Political

FIFA’s claim to neutrality rests on a fiction. The World Cup is not politically neutral. Official flags are displayed. Anthems are played. National teams appear as symbols of collective identity. State officials attend. Host governments provide infrastructure and security. Sponsors shape the visual landscape. Media narratives frame the event. FIFA does not remove politics by banning dissident symbols. It decides which politics count as part of the ordinary football identity.

This matters most when the participating state is authoritarian. International football lets states project unity. The official flag suggests the state, nation and people are one and the same. Diasporic and dissident symbols contest this claim. By permitting the official flag of the Islamic Republic while excluding a dissident Iranian symbol as “political”, FIFA is not keeping politics out of football. It is privileging state-approved politics. Neutrality becomes asymmetrical: official identity is normalized, dissident identity is risky.

Seattle and Los Angeles

The Egypt v Iran match in Seattle shows how unstable FIFA’s classification method really is. Despite objections from both Egypt and Iran, Human Rights Watch reported that FIFA allowed rainbow flags at the match. FIFA described the tournament as “an inclusive event that welcomes people from all backgrounds” and confirmed that rainbow flags and other flags representing sexual orientation and gender identity were permitted under the Stadium Code, provided they were used in accordance with the rules.

FIFA was right to do this. A federation’s objection because of cultural, religious or governmental discomfort cannot by itself transform peaceful expression of equality into a stadium danger. But precisely because FIFA got Seattle right, its handling of the Lion and Sun flag is even harder to justify. The two symbols are not identical. The rainbow flag signals equality and non-discrimination, while the Lion and Sun flag carries a different historical and political meaning: national memory, diasporic identity and opposition to the Islamic Republic. That difference does not answer the legal question though; if anything, it makes legal classification more necessary. Seattle shows that FIFA can resist state pressure and classify contested fan expression through a human-rights lens. Los Angeles shows the opposite approach: the dissident fan gets reduced to a ticket-holder, and anti-authoritarian national memory gets redefined as a risk to the stadium. The inconsistency is not only one of outcome. It is also an inconsistency of legal method.

A Better Neutrality Rule

FIFA does not need a politics-free stadium. That stadium does not exist. What it needs is a rights-sensitive neutrality rule. Such a rule should start with classification. Discriminatory abuse, racist symbols, antisemitic expression, homophobic harassment, targeted intimidation and incitement to violence can be prohibited outright. Operational risks can be handled through neutral rules on size, materials, poles, placement, exits, sightlines, fire safety and crowd flow. Peaceful symbols tied to identity, politics or history should be permitted unless FIFA can point to a concrete, non-discriminatory and proportionate reason to restrict them. This standard would not take control away from FIFA. It would discipline how FIFA uses that control by requiring it to name the actual problem, rather than reaching for “political” as a collective term.

Conclusion: Selective Recognition

The World Cup is not a parliament. It is not a protest square. But it is not a zone of silence either. It is a global public event where states, diasporas, corporations, fans and political memories all converge. That is why FIFA’s speech rules matter. They do not merely manage logistics. They decide which symbols count as inclusion, which count as national representation and which count as political risk. Seattle shows that FIFA can do better.

It can withstand state pressure and permit symbols that participating federations disapprove of, provided they express equality and dignity. Los Angeles shows that courts may simply be too late:  by the time a fan reaches the gate, the legal relation has already been narrowed to ticket terms, private property, security discretion and emergency procedure. The problem with FIFA’s freedom of speech is not simply that it regulates fans. The problem is that it has no rights-sensitive method for deciding when fan identity becomes prohibited politics. That is not neutrality. It is selective recognition.

The post FIFA’s Neutrality Trap appeared first on Verfassungsblog.

Breaking the Silence on Sexual Violence in Cyprus

On 8 July 2026, the European Parliament adopted a Resolution on the Impact of the 1974 Turkish Invasion on Cypriot Women and Girls and the Crimes Committed by Turkish Forces and Consequences on Gender Equality. The Resolution acknowledges that Cypriot women’s experiences of violence during 1974 are “often being excluded from official historical, legal and institutional recognition” and thus calls to document testimonies and provide support for survivors. This is particularly significant from the perspective of the expressive dimension of justice. Justice requires creating the conditions in which those whose voices have long been silenced can tell their stories, contribute to the historical record, and participate in shaping the collective memory of conflict if they wish to do so. The Resolution therefore provides an important opening for such recognition, but its transformative potential will ultimately depend on whether its commitments to documenting testimony and promoting historical awareness translate into meaningful opportunities for survivors to speak and be heard openly and safely and to have their experiences incorporated into Cyprus’s public memory of the conflict.

The Historical Context of Cyprus

The history of Cyprus has been marked by recurring intercommunal violence and profound human suffering. The intercommunal clashes, which reached their most violent peak between 1963 and 1964 as well as 1967, were marked by killings committed by and against members of both the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities. On 15 July 1974, the military junta then governing Greece carried out a bloody coup d’état to remove President Archbishop Makarios III from power. Five days later, on 20 July 1974, Turkish armed forces invaded the island, marking the beginning of a military intervention that resulted in widespread loss of life, mass displacement, enforced disappearances and the occupation of approximately 37% of the island, which continues to this day. On 14 August 1974, Turkey launched the second phase of the invasion.

Among the many violations committed during the conflict was the sexual violence perpetrated against women and girls. Yet, despite the profound physical and psychological consequences of these crimes, the experiences of survivors remained largely absent from public discourse for decades. Their silence was rarely the product of formal legal prohibition. Rather, it reflected the enduring effects of trauma, stigma, patriarchal social norms, fear of disbelief and social exclusion, together with the absence of institutional spaces in which survivors could safely recount their experiences. Consequently, one of the gravest yet least acknowledged consequences of the Cyprus conflict occupied only a marginal place in political and public discourse.

Gradual Change

The position of survivors of conflict-related sexual violence has gradually begun to change. Over the past three decades, international criminal law and international human rights law have fundamentally transformed the legal understanding of conflict-related sexual violence, recognising it as one of the gravest violations committed during armed conflict. From the landmark jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda to the adoption of the 2000 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security, international law has increasingly recognised that justice for survivors requires more than criminal accountability. It also demands acknowledgement, documentation, reparative measures and the preservation of survivors’ testimonies as part of the historical record.

The European Parliament’s Resolution on Cyprus was adopted by 575 votes in favour and 33 against, with 43 abstentions. The initiative emerged through the European Parliament’s Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, FEMM. The Resolution calls for, inter alia, greater recognition, justice, accountability and support for victims, while addressing the long-term consequences of displacement and conflict-related violence.

Specific to the argument in this piece, the Resolution:

“Calls on the Commission to support Cyprus in continuing efforts to determine the full scale of conflict-related crimes, including sexual violence, and establish the number of victims, to collect data and safely document testimonies, thus ensuring adequate official recognition, redress and reparation for survivors and, where appropriate, their descendants, to promote historical awareness and to provide support services for survivors through an enhanced national action plan.”

The Resolution consistently refers to Cypriot women and girls and addresses the sexual crimes committed by the Turkish military forces and paramilitary extremist perpetrators during the Turkish invasion. Although non-binding, resolutions represent the majority position of Parliament and constitute an important means of drawing institutional attention to particular issues and seeking to influence the actions and priorities of other actors. In this sense, the Resolution assumes particular importance. More than five decades after the events of 1974, it brings the gendered consequences of the conflict, and in particular conflict-related sexual violence, into a European institutional framework.

The Resolution was strongly challenged by the self-proclaimed “Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,” an entity not recognized by the international community. In a statement issued by its “Ministry of Foreign Affairs”, “this unacceptable resolution targeting TĂŒrkiye will serve no purpose other than contributing to Greek Cypriot propaganda aimed at misleading the international community.”

Political disagreement over the framing of the Resolution cannot serve as a basis for denying, minimising or diverting attention from the experiences of women who suffered sexual violence during the conflict. Nor should competing narratives surrounding the events of 1974 be invoked to discredit survivors’ testimonies or to transform recognition of conflict-related sexual violence into yet another arena of political contestation.

There is also a deeper transitional justice deficit at play. Cyprus still lacks a truth-seeking mechanism capable of investigating conflict-related atrocities, including conflict-related sexual violence. As Demetriades has observed, Cypriot society has yet to reach agreement even on the basic historical framework through which the conflict is understood, illustrating the continuing difficulty of establishing a shared account of the past. This absence makes the political controversy surrounding the Resolution all the more significant. Rather than allowing disagreement over historical narratives to undermine the recognition of survivors, it should underscore the urgency of creating an institutional space in which experiences of conflict-related sexual violence can be documented, acknowledged and preserved across communal lines.

The Expressive Dimension of Justice

Freedom of expression has traditionally been understood through the lens of the relationship between the individual and the state, with constitutional and human rights law primarily concerned with protecting speakers against censorship, criminal sanctions and other forms of governmental interference. This conception remains indispensable as it safeguards political dissent, facilitates public debate, and protects the exchange of ideas upon which constitutional democracy depends. Notwithstanding the importance of such protections, they do not fully explain the experiences of many survivors of conflict-related sexual violence.

The prolonged silence surrounding the experiences of many women and girls affected by the Cyprus conflict illustrates this limitation. There is little evidence that survivors were prevented by law from speaking publicly about the violence they had endured. Instead, their silence reflected the cumulative effects of psychological trauma, shame, patriarchal social norms, concerns about stigma and the absence of institutional environments in which disclosure could occur safely and with dignity. For many women, speaking publicly risked social exclusion, disbelief or renewed victimisation. Silence, therefore, cannot simply be interpreted as the absence of speech. Instead, it reveals existence of structural barriers that rendered meaningful participation in public discourse extraordinarily difficult despite the formal legal freedom to speak.

This distinction highlights what might be described as the expressive dimension of justice. Justice for survivors of conflict-related sexual violence cannot be exhausted by criminal accountability, reparations or official acknowledgement. It also encompasses the conditions under which survivors can recount their experiences, have those experiences received with dignity and respect, and contribute to the collective understanding of past atrocities. Recognition therefore performs an expressive function. It affirms not only that grave violations occurred but also that survivors are recognised as authoritative participants in the historical record rather than remaining peripheral to it. Understood in this way, freedom of expression serves not merely to protect speech against state interference but to facilitate the communicative conditions through which recognition itself becomes possible.

Scholarship on epistemic injustice provides a valuable framework for understanding the relationship between survivor recognition and freedom of expression. Fricker defines epistemic injustice as a distinctive form of injustice in which individuals are wronged specifically in their capacity as knowers. One important manifestation is testimonial injustice, which occurs when prejudice causes a hearer to assign a credibility deficit to a speaker’s testimony, thereby denying it the recognition it deserves. Dotson develops this account by demonstrating that epistemic injustice may arise even before testimony is offered. Through what she terms testimonial smothering, individuals may truncate or withhold their testimony because they reasonably conclude that their audience lacks the competence or willingness to understand it, making silence a rational response rather than a freely chosen one. Dryzek and Niemeyer have argued that epistemic injustice extends beyond failures of credibility or understanding. They identify expressive epistemic injustice, whereby individuals are wronged not because they are formally prevented from speaking, but because the surrounding social and political conditions inhibit their ability to express their experiences meaningfully. Their analysis shifts attention from the mere legal freedom to speak towards the communicative conditions necessary for meaningful expression.

This insight is particularly relevant to survivors of conflict-related sexual violence in Cyprus. Their prolonged silence can be explained by trauma and the risk of disbelief. However, it reflects a broader social environment characterised by stigma, patriarchal norms, political sensitivities and institutional neglect, in which many survivors could reasonably conclude that speaking would not result in genuine understanding or recognition. Viewed through this lens, the significance of the European Parliament’s Resolution lies not only in acknowledging survivors but also in contributing to the conditions under which long-silenced experiences can finally enter public discourse. This is the expressive dimension of justice: one that depends upon robust truth-seeking mechanisms, an intercommunal approach to recognition, and the creation of the social and legal conditions necessary for freedom of expression to be meaningfully exercised across the (Cyprus) divide.

Conclusion

The European Parliament’s Resolution represents an important and long-overdue step towards recognising survivors of conflict-related sexual violence in Cyprus. Yet, if Cyprus is to achieve a genuinely inclusive form of justice, it must first establish an independent mechanism capable of investigating and documenting conflict-related sexual violence committed against all survivors, irrespective of community or perpetrator. Such a mechanism could be, for example, the precedent of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (CMP), co-funded by the European Union and composed of Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot members, together with a third member appointed by the United Nations. Not without its challenges and setbacks, the CMP demonstrates that bicommunal and internationally supported cooperation is possible when addressing the painful legacies of the conflict. A parallel, although necessarily distinct, model could be envisaged for conflict-related sexual violence. Drawing inspiration from the CMP’s institutional structure, a dedicated bicommunal mechanism could provide a secure and confidential process through which survivors from both communities could voluntarily provide testimony and have their experiences documented and preserved, with appropriate safeguards and psychological support. Only based on such a shared factual record can recognition fully contribute to justice, reconciliation and lasting peace.

At the core of any such mechanism should be the recognition that, in traumatised societies, freedom of expression entails more than the liberty to speak. It must also enable those whose experiences have long been excluded from public discourse to become part of a shared public memory. In doing so, it can serve both individual dignity and the broader pursuit of reconciliation.

 

Special thanks to Dr. Nadia Kornioti for her invaluable assistance with questions relating to the Cyprus conflict. All views expressed herein, as well as any errors, are entirely my own.

The post Breaking the Silence on Sexual Violence in Cyprus appeared first on Verfassungsblog.

Ein trojanisches Pferd zulasten der Umwelt

In Deutschland sollen mehr Wohnungen gebaut werden – dieses Ziel hat die Bundesregierung schon in ihrem Koalitionsvertrag proklamiert (Koalitionsvertrag, S. 22). Erreichen will die Bundesregierung dies, indem sie die Planungsverfahren beschleunigt. Dazu soll der Gesetzentwurf „zur Modernisierung des StĂ€dtebau- und Raumordnungsrechts“ (BT-Drs. 21/6588) beitragen. Dieser sieht vor, dass das Bauen von Wohnungen bei der Festsetzung von bestimmten Baugebieten in einem Bebauungsplan als im ĂŒberragenden öffentlichen Interesse berĂŒcksichtigt wird (§ 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E). Damit soll der Bau von Wohnungen Vorrang haben gegenĂŒber anderen, auch wichtigen Belangen wie dem Klima- und Naturschutz (BT-Drs. 21/6588, S. 62).

Die Vorrangregelung des § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E begegnet grundsĂ€tzlichen Bedenken: Sie betrifft nicht mehr nur einzelne Vorhaben, sondern ganze Baugebiete. Damit priorisiert der Gesetzgeber – anders als in der GesetzesbegrĂŒndung behauptet – nicht nur den Wohnungsbau, sondern mittelbar auch den Bau von Gewerbe- oder BĂŒrogebĂ€uden. Die Vorschrift wirft grundlegende Zweifel an ihrer Vereinbarkeit mit dem verfassungsrechtlich grundierten Grundsatz der gemeindlichen planerischen AbwĂ€gungsentscheidung auf. Sie fĂŒhrt dazu – falls sie ĂŒberhaupt praktikabel ist –, dass alle anderen Belange zurĂŒckgestellt werden, wie etwa der Klima- und Naturschutz.

Reichweite des § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E: Gebiet mit angespanntem Wohnungsmarkt

1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E soll nur in Gebieten gelten, die die jeweilige Landesregierung als Gebiet mit angespanntem Wohnungsmarkt gem. § 201a BauGB festgesetzt hat. Ein solches Gebiet liegt gem. § 201a Satz 3 BauGB vor, wenn die ausreichende Versorgung der Bevölkerung mit Mietwohnungen in einer Gemeinde oder einem Teil der Gemeinde zu angemessenen Bedingungen besonders gefĂ€hrdet ist. Dies kann nach Satz 4 etwa dann der Fall sein, wenn die Mieten deutlich stĂ€rker steigen als im bundesweiten Durchschnitt oder geringer Leerstand bei großer Nachfrage besteht. Diese Voraussetzungen können Gerichte auch ĂŒberprĂŒfen, wenn ein Bebauungsplan anzuwenden ist, der unter Anwendung von § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E erlassen worden ist. Allerdings rĂ€umen die Gerichte hier den Landesregierungen einen erheblichen Beurteilungsspielraum ein. Mehrere Landesregierungen haben bereits Gebiete nach § 201a BauGB bestimmt, die bis zum 31.12.2026 gĂŒltig sind (u. a. Berlin, Bayern und Baden-WĂŒrttemberg).

Schon der sog. „Bauturbo“ eröffnet erhebliche Möglichkeiten zur Genehmigung von Vorhaben des Wohnungsbaus, nĂ€mlich in §§ 31 Abs. 3, 34 Abs. 3b und 246e BauGB. Im Gegensatz zu diesen Vorschriften greift die neue Vorrangregelung des § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E aber nur ein, wenn ein entsprechender Wohnungsbedarf festgestellt worden ist. Diese Begrenzung des Anwendungsbereichs ist zu begrĂŒĂŸen. Allerdings wurde auch bei der vorangegangenen Novelle des Baugesetzbuches im Laufe des Gesetzgebungsverfahrens die Voraussetzung des § 201a BauGB gestrichen. Es ist daher nicht auszuschließen, dass diese EinschrĂ€nkung auch hier noch gestrichen wird. Um zusĂ€tzlichen Wohnraum zu schaffen, werden die Gemeinden letztlich erst dann zu den nun vorgesehenen erweiterten Möglichkeiten zur Ausweisung von Baugebieten zurĂŒckgreifen, wenn selbst die weitreichenden Möglichkeiten der Bauturbo-Novelle nicht mehr offenstehen.

VerstĂ€rkung des Trends der ZurĂŒckdrĂ€ngung von Umwelt-­, Klima- und Naturschutzbelangen

Die geplante Vorrangregelung fĂŒr Baugebiete, die „auch“ Wohnen vorsehen, fĂŒhrt einen gesetzgeberischen Trend in eine neue Richtung, der zugunsten von Infrastrukturvorhaben die Belange des Umwelt-, Klima- und Naturschutzes zurĂŒckdrĂ€ngen soll (s. AufzĂ€hlung in BT-Drs. 21/6588, S. 76). Er betraf bislang die Genehmigung von Anlagen. Das macht etwa § 2 EEG deutlich: Der Errichtung und dem Betrieb bestimmter Anlagen bzw. Vorhaben – etwa erneuerbare Energieanlagen in § 2 EEG oder Infrastrukturvorhaben wie Übertragungsnetze – weist die Norm ein ĂŒberragendes öffentliches Interesse zu. Dies fĂŒhrt zu einem besonderen Gewicht dieser Vorhaben in behördlichen Ermessens- und AbwĂ€gungsentscheidungen, ohne dass die AbwĂ€gung gĂ€nzlich entfiele (sog. relativer AbwĂ€gungsvorrang). Das jĂŒngst verabschiedete Infrastruktur-Zukunftsgesetz erweitert die Liste an Anlagen und Vorhaben, die bereits aktuell im ĂŒberragenden öffentlichen Interesse liegend gesetzlich verankert sind, erheblich.

Die Auswirkungen des § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E sind mit den bisherigen Priorisierungsregelungen nicht vergleichbar. Sie gehen weit darĂŒber hinaus. Es handelt sich nicht mehr um eine Priorisierung einzelner Vorhaben oder Anlagen, sondern um die Festsetzung von Baugebieten. In einem nach § 201a BauGB bestimmten Gebiet mit einem angespannten Wohnungsmarkt soll dann, wenn ein Baugebiet, das „zumindest auch dem Wohnen dient“, festgesetzt werden soll, die in dem Bebauungsplan vorgesehene Wohnbebauung im ĂŒberragenden öffentlichen Interesse liegen und als vorrangiger Belang in die jeweils durchzufĂŒhrende AbwĂ€gung eingebracht werden.

Vorrang fĂŒr ganze Baugebiete

Diese Regelung wird bewirken, dass auch andere Vorhaben, etwa Gewerbebetriebe, die in dem jeweiligen Baugebiet ebenso zulĂ€ssig sind, von diesem Vorrang profitieren – und damit der Klima- und Naturschutz noch weniger BerĂŒcksichtigung finden wird. Mit der Festsetzung eines Baugebiets, in dem Wohnen zulĂ€ssig ist, werden nĂ€mlich auch andere Nutzungsarten ermöglicht. Die Priorisierungsregel soll nicht nur reine oder allgemeine Wohngebiete erfassen, die ausschließlich bzw. wesentlich dem Wohnen dienen. Die Priorisierung findet somit auch Anwendung auf Baugebietstypen, die Wohnen zulassen, aber im Schwerpunkt auch andere Arten der baulichen Nutzung vorsehen, so etwa gemischte Baugebiete (etwa Dorfgebiete [§ 5 BauNVO] oder Mischgebiete [§ 6 BauNVO]). Das gilt auch fĂŒr Kerngebiete, die durch § 7 Abs. 1 Satz 2 BauNVO-E zugunsten der Wohnnutzung erweitert werden (BT-Drs. 21/6588, S. 145).

Entgegen der BegrĂŒndung könnte die neue Vorrangregelung, also die Priorisierung von neuem Wohnraum, nicht nur dann eine Rolle spielen, wenn neue Wohngebiete ausgewiesen werden. Eigentlich entgegenstehende Belange, wie der Bodenschutz oder die Gestaltung des Orts- und Landschaftsbildes, wĂŒrden auch dann potenziell ins Hintertreffen geraten, wenn Baugebiete festgesetzt wĂŒrden, in denen Wohnnutzung auch, aber nicht nur, zulĂ€ssig ist – die anderen Nutzungsarten in dem Baugebiet wĂŒrden gleichsam von der Priorisierung „mitgezogen“. Sie erhalten mittelbar ebenfalls einen Vorrang gegenĂŒber den einer solchen Planung entgegenstehenden Belangen. EinschrĂ€nkungen fĂŒr andere als Wohnnutzung könnte die Gemeinde nach § 1 Abs. 4-10 BauNVO nur beschrĂ€nkt festsetzen. Denn der Baugebietstyp, zu dem auch andere Nutzungen als die Wohnnutzung gehören, muss jeweils gewahrt bleiben. So muss beispielsweise in einem Mischgebiet nach § 6 BauNVO, das dem Wohnen und der Unterbringung von Gewerbebetrieben, die das Wohnen nicht wesentlich stören, dient, die gewerbliche Nutzung möglich bleiben und es darf keine der beiden Nutzungsarten – Wohnen oder Gewerbe – ein Übergewicht gewinnen. Die in den Baugebieten daher zulĂ€ssige, nicht notwendig ĂŒberwiegende Wohnnutzung wird somit zum trojanischen Pferd, indem andere Nutzungsarten ebenfalls mit einem besonderen Gewicht versehen werden und prioritĂ€r zuzulassen sind.

Kaum realisierbare Umsetzung in der planerischen AbwÀgung

Die Vorrangregelung ist mit dem rechtsstaatlichen Grundsatz gerechter planerischer AbwĂ€gung unvereinbar, weil sie nicht realisierbar ist und außerdem in den Auswirkungen zu weit greift. Das hat Auswirkungen auf andere AbwĂ€gungen: Hierzu zĂ€hlt die GesetzesbegrĂŒndung AbwĂ€gungen, insbesondere nach dem Natur- und Artenschutzrecht (BT-Drs. 21/6588, S. 77).

Das ĂŒberragende öffentliche Interesse soll sich nach der BegrĂŒndung (BT-Drs. 21/6588, S. 77) (nur) auf die im Planentwurf vorgesehene Wohnbebauung (Satz 1) und auf weitere Nutzungen beziehen, die die Wohnbebauung ergĂ€nzen (Satz 2). Mit letzteren sollen Nutzungen gemeint sein, die fĂŒr eine wohnortnahe Versorgungsinfrastruktur typisch sind, z.B. Nutzungen, die kulturellen, sozialen, gesundheitlichen oder sportlichen Zwecken, der Versorgung mit stĂ€dtischen GrĂŒnstrukturen oder der verbrauchernahen Versorgung mit GĂŒtern und Dienstleistungen dienen. Die BegrĂŒndung geht also davon aus, dass sich der Gewichtungsvorrang allein auf die in dem Bebauungsplan vorgesehene Wohnbebauung und bestimmte Annexnutzungen bezieht.

Eine differenzierte AbwĂ€gung, die Wohnnutzung auf der einen Seite und die anderen – dann auch zulĂ€ssigen – Nutzungsarten auf der anderen, ist aber angesichts des komplexen Zusammenhangs des AbwĂ€gungsvorgangs und der AbwĂ€gung kaum durchfĂŒhrbar. Dies widerspricht auch dem Wesen der Angebotsplanung des Bebauungsplans. Danach steht es jedem GrundstĂŒckseigentĂŒmer frei, ob und welche der zulĂ€ssigen baulichen Nutzungen er realisiert. Er muss also z.B. in einem Mischgebiet grundsĂ€tzlich keine Wohnbebauung planen.

Daher ist die Priorisierung eines Baugebiets, das „zumindest“ auch Wohnen ermöglicht, nicht gerechtfertigt. In Hinblick auf die Priorisierung der Wohnbebauung könnte man von einem „Etikettenschwindel“ in der AbwĂ€gung sprechen. Gleiches gilt gegenĂŒber den Belangen von Umwelt- und Naturschutz. Hier ist nicht ersichtlich, wie die Priorisierung umgesetzt werden soll. Es wĂ€re dann zu fragen, ob die Priorisierung umso mehr an Gewicht verliert, je mehr in dem Baugebiet andere Nutzungen als Wohnnutzung zulĂ€ssig werden.

Schließlich: Selbst wenn sich ein AbwĂ€gungsmodell entwickeln ließe, das solche Differenzierungen ermöglicht, erscheint dies fĂŒr eine Gemeinde in dem beabsichtigten beschleunigten Verfahren kaum realisierbar.

Grundsatz der dreifachen Innenentwicklung in der Form nicht umsetzbar

Die BegrĂŒndung fĂŒhrt aus, es sei zu beachten, dass § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E nicht die allgemeinen Ziele und GrundsĂ€tze der Bauleitplanung nach § 1 Abs. 5 BauGB-E verdrĂ€ngt. Insbesondere der neu eingefĂŒhrte Grundsatz der dreifachen Innenentwicklung (§ 1 Abs. 5 S. 1 BauGB-E; BT-Drs. 21/6588, S. 77), wonach die Innenentwicklung neben der baulichen Entwicklung auch die Entwicklung der GrĂŒn- und FreiflĂ€chen sowie die Entwicklung von FlĂ€chen fĂŒr die MobilitĂ€t umfasst, bleibe bei der Erstellung von BauleitplĂ€nen zu beachten. Innenentwicklung meint das Ziel, nicht neue AußenbereichsflĂ€chen zu bebauen. Das soll v.a. durch Wiedernutzbarmachung von FlĂ€chen und Nachverdichtung erreicht werden, wie § 1a Abs. 2 Satz 1 BauGB vorgibt. Auch dieser Gedanke wird jedenfalls im Wortlaut des § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E nicht deutlich. Vielmehr wird hier ein genereller Vorrang des Belangs Wohnungsbau normiert. Unklar ist zudem auch hier, wie die Binnengewichtung innerhalb der Belange vorzunehmen ist, die das Baugesetzbuch der AbwĂ€gung selbst vorgibt.

Minderung des Klimaschutzniveaus

Mit dieser Regelung konterkariert das Gesetz das weitere Anliegen dieser Novelle des BauGB, dem Klimaschutz zu grĂ¶ĂŸerer Durchschlagskraft zu verhelfen. Indem der Belang des Klimaschutzes zurĂŒckgedrĂ€ngt wird, werden zugleich die Anstrengungen des Gesetzgebers vermindert, die Ziele des Klimaschutzgesetzes, die insbesondere im GebĂ€udesektor verfehlt werden, zu erreichen. Der Wissenschaftliche Dienst des Deutschen Bundestages hat jĂŒngst darauf hingewiesen, dass solche, das Klimaschutzniveau mindernde gesetzlichen Regelungen gegen das (möglicherweise fĂŒr jedes einzelne Gesetz geltende) klimarechtliche Verschlechterungsverbot verstoßen (BT WD 5 – 3000 – 064/26 vom 8.6.2026). Jedenfalls reiht sich diese Gesetzesnovelle in die vielfĂ€ltigen Bestrebungen des Gesetzgebers ein, durch Vorrangregelungen zulasten des Umweltschutzes und namentlich des Klimaschutzes gegen das Verschlechterungsverbot zu verstoßen.

Symbolische Gesetzgebung?

Anders wĂ€re dies, wenn man dem § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E allenfalls eine symbolische Funktion beimessen wĂŒrde, die fĂŒr die Praxis wenig Neues bringt. NeusĂŒĂŸ und Sparwasser argumentieren, die Gemeinden seien schon jetzt frei, dem Wohnungsbau in der AbwĂ€gung Vorrang einzurĂ€umen. Wenn eine Gemeinde nicht wachsen wolle, könne sie auch durch die Priorisierung nicht dazu gezwungen werden. Das folge aus der verfassungsrechtlich gewĂ€hrleisteten Planungshoheit (NeusĂŒĂŸ/Sparwasser). Das trifft jedoch nicht zu: Denn kĂŒnftig hĂ€ngt es gerade nicht mehr vom Willen der Gemeinde ab, ob sie dem Wohnungsbau in der AbwĂ€gung Vorrang einrĂ€umen will. Dies gibt das Gesetz nun vor. Sollte § 1 Abs. 7a BauGB-E doch lediglich symbolische Gesetzgebung sein, sollte er wegen der dadurch bewirkten irritierenden Wirkung gestrichen werden.

Fazit

Im Ergebnis drĂ€ngt sich der Eindruck auf, dass unter dem Etikett der Schaffung von Wohnraum zugleich auch Baugebiete mit sĂ€mtlichen anderen Nutzungsarten in der AbwĂ€gung einen Vorrang gegenĂŒber entgegenstehenden Belangen, wie etwa Boden- und Naturschutzbelangen, zugewiesen werden sollen. Es besteht die Gefahr, dass die Gemeinden durch die mittelbare Priorisierung auch solche Bebauungen ermöglichen können, die von dem Gesetzesvorhaben gerade nicht gefördert werden sollen – es reicht aus, wenn es sich um Gebiete handelt, in denen auch Wohnungen zulĂ€ssig sind. Als trojanisches Pferd schleust die Wohnnutzung so sĂ€mtliche anderen Nutzungsarten in den Vorrang mit ein. Die von der Novelle auch erstrebten Ziele der dreifachen Innenentwicklung und der StĂ€rkung des Klimaschutzes werden so konterkariert.

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