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Wesensgehalt, WĂŒrde, Werte

Wesensgehalt, WĂŒrde, Werte – so lautet der magische Dreiklang, mit dem das Plenum des EuGH das ungarische Anti-LGBTQ-Gesetz in seinem mit Spannung erwarteten Urteil in der Rechtssache Kommission/Ungarn (Werte der Union) zu Fall bringt. Dass es sich um Verletzungen absoluter, d.h. keiner Rechtfertigung zugĂ€nglicher verfassungsrechtlicher Garantien der Union handelt, verdeutlicht die herausragende Drastik und den Ausnahmecharakter des Falles. Bereits die Kommission hatte in dem Gesetz „noch mehr“ gesehen als einen gewöhnlichen Verstoß gegen SekundĂ€rrecht und Unionsgrundrechte (vgl. die SchlussantrĂ€ge der GeneralanwĂ€ltin Ćapeta, Rn. 35 f.).

Die Frage, ob und wie die Werte des Art. 2 EUV operationalisiert werden können, nahm in der unionsverfassungsrechtlichen Literatur der letzten Jahre einen bedeutenden Platz ein (s. u.a. hier, hier und hier). So ist es nicht verwunderlich, dass sich die bisherigen Analysen zu der Entscheidung vordergrĂŒndig um deren erstmalige isolierte Anwendung im Vertragsverletzungsverfahren drehen (s. hier, hier und hier). Der vorliegende Beitrag widmet sich hingegen den Fragen der MaßstĂ€be fĂŒr Wesensgehalts-, WĂŒrde- und WerteverstĂ¶ĂŸe.

Dabei zeigt sich, dass der EuGH im Hinblick auf VerstĂ¶ĂŸe gegen den Wesensgehalt eines Grundrechts mit einem neuen, an der Bedeutung der Grundrechte fĂŒr die europĂ€ische Gesellschaft i.S.v. Art. 2 S. 2 EUV orientierten Ansatz aufwartet und diesen im Rahmen der MenschenwĂŒrdegarantie konsequent fortsetzt. Hinsichtlich der Werte des Art. 2 S. 1 EUV markiert die Entscheidung zugleich den Auftakt einer neuen Rechtsprechungslinie, im Rahmen derer die Suche nach passenden MaßstĂ€ben gerade erst beginnt.

Was bisher geschah

Im Jahr 2021 hatte das ungarische Parlament ein „Gesetz ĂŒber ein strengeres Vorgehen gegen pĂ€dophile StraftĂ€ter und die Änderung bestimmter Gesetze zum Schutz von Kindern“ verabschiedet. Die Regelungen untersagten es, MinderjĂ€hrigen Inhalte zugĂ€nglich zu machen, die Abweichungen von der dem Geschlecht bei der Geburt entsprechenden GeschlechtsidentitĂ€t, Geschlechtsumwandlungen oder HomosexualitĂ€t thematisieren oder darstellen. Gemeinsamer Nenner dieser Maßnahmen war die pauschale Annahme, nicht-heterosexuelle bzw. nicht-cisgeschlechtliche Lebensweisen wĂŒrden die Entwicklung von MinderjĂ€hrigen gefĂ€hrden und eine NĂ€he zu pĂ€dophil motivierter KriminalitĂ€t aufweisen.

Wesentlich = fĂŒr die europĂ€ische Gesellschaft wesentlich?

Anders als die GeneralanwĂ€ltin arbeitet sich der EuGH bei der Beurteilung der KlagegrĂŒnde vom SekundĂ€rrecht ĂŒber die Unionsgrundrechte zu den Werten vor, d.h. von den speziellen zu den generellen Normen. Im Rahmen der Frage, ob es sich bei dem Gesetz um eine angemessene Maßnahme zum Schutz MinderjĂ€hriger i.S.v. Art. 6a Abs. 1 RL (EU) 2010/13 (a.F.) handelt, prĂŒft er inzident, ob die ungarischen Normen mit Art. 21 Abs. 1 GRCh vereinbar sind.

Damit kann das Plenum eines seiner argumentativen Leitmotive entfalten, auf das es in der Entscheidung immer wieder zurĂŒckkommt (Rn. 162, 203, 233, 306, 414, 422): die Verletzung des Wesensgehalts des Grundrechts auf Nichtdiskriminierung wegen des Geschlechts und der sexuellen Ausrichtung aus Art. 21 Abs. 1 GRCh. Indem das Gesetz cisgeschlechtliche und heterosexuelle Personen einerseits bevorzuge und LGBTQ-Personen andererseits stigmatisiere, verstoße es „offenkundig gegen die Anforderungen [
] die sich in einer auf Pluralismus beruhenden Gesellschaft aus dem durch Art. 21 Abs. 1 der Charta garantierten Verbot der Diskriminierung wegen des Geschlechts und der sexuellen Ausrichtung ergeben“ und beeintrĂ€chtige daher den Wesensgehalt des Grundrechts (Rn. 141).

Damit formt der EuGH den Wesensgehalt im speziellen Kontext dieses Grundrechts erstmals expliziter aus. Bisher hatte er sich in den Entscheidungen LĂ©ger (Rn. 54) und Fries (Rn. 38) mit der „Leerformel“ begnĂŒgt, das Recht dĂŒrfe nicht „als solches“ in Frage gestellt werden. Nun dĂŒrfte zumindest insoweit Gewissheit bestehen, dass eine staatlicherseits erfolgende, auf gesellschaftliche Breitenwirkung angelegte Stigmatisierung von Minderheiten gegen den Wesensgehalt des Gleichheitsgrundrechts verstĂ¶ĂŸt. Den Weg hierzu ebnet der EuGH mit einer Auslegung des Art. 21 Abs. 1 GRCh, bei der er mit der Formulierung einer „auf Pluralismus beruhenden Gesellschaft“ implizit auf Art. 2 S. 2 EUV verweist.

Hieran sind zwei Punkte bemerkenswert: Soweit ersichtlich hat der EuGH damit erstmals einen grundrechtlichen Wesensgehalt herausgearbeitet, indem er Art. 2 EUV jenseits der im Rahmen von Art. 47 Abs. 2 GRCh bekannten Standardformel herangezogen hat (zuletzt hier Rn. 36). Zweitens verweist der EuGH auf diejenigen Eigenschaften, welche die europĂ€ische Gesellschaft auszeichnen, um den Wesensgehalt zu ermitteln. Die Werte des Art. 2 S. 1 EUV nutzte der EuGH im Wesensgehaltskontext bisher ausschließlich in den RechtsstaatlichkeitsfĂ€llen, um eine unabhĂ€ngige nationale Judikative als Gelingensbedingung der Rechtsgemeinschaft abzusichern. Nun bringt der EuGH sie gegen eine mit den Anforderungen des Art. 2 S. 2 EUV inkompatible Formung einer nationalen Gesellschaft durch einen Mitgliedstaat in Stellung. Denn das Gesetz zielte einerseits darauf ab, andere als cisgeschlechtliche und heterosexuelle Lebensweisen insbesondere gegenĂŒber MinderjĂ€hrigen unsichtbar zu machen. Die Sichtbarkeit von Minderheiten ist jedoch Voraussetzung dafĂŒr, gegen deren Lebensweise Toleranz entwickeln zu können. Andererseits rufe das Gesetz durch die VerknĂŒpfung dieser Lebensweisen mit pĂ€dophil motivierter KriminalitĂ€t die „Entwicklung hassgetriebenen Verhaltens“ gegenĂŒber LGBTQ-Personen hervor (s. Rn. 446).

Die Wesensgehaltsgarantie erhĂ€lt damit u.a. neben ihrer Operationalisierung als Grenze gegenseitigen Vertrauens in AuslieferungsfĂ€llen noch eine weitere Funktion: Sie soll verhindern, dass sich nationale Gesellschaften in eine Richtung entwickeln, die den Eigenschaften der europĂ€ischen Gesellschaft nach Art. 2 S. 2 EUV widerspricht – deren Teilmengen sie formen. Dass diese Auslegungsmethode, die sich an den wĂŒnschenswerten Eigenschaften einer Gesellschaft orientiert, nicht neu ist, zeigt auch die Rechtsprechung des EGMR, auf die der EuGH verweist (Rn. 150 f.): Danach ist Bildungspluralismus – die Konfrontation mit verschiedenen Lebensweisen – notwendig fĂŒr eine „demokratische Gesellschaft“ im Sinne der EMRK.

Der EuGH wertet die Wesensgehaltsgarantie zudem erheblich auf: „[N]ach Art. 52 Abs. 1 Satz 1 der Charta [kann] eine BeeintrĂ€chtigung des Wesensgehalts eines durch sie garantierten Rechts keinesfalls gerechtfertigt werden“ (Rn. 142). Dieses absolute VerstĂ€ndnis war zuvor zwar in einer Kammerentscheidung des Gerichtshofs angedeutet, nicht aber in einer Plenarentscheidung bestĂ€tigt worden, wobei die Rechtsprechung bereits seit Langem in diese Richtung deutet (s. hier, S. 336 ff. sowie hier).

Dass WesensgehaltsverstĂ¶ĂŸe nicht zu rechtfertigen sind, erlaubt es dem EuGH, auf die von Ungarn angefĂŒhrten RechtfertigungsgrĂŒnde in der Sache nicht nĂ€her einzugehen und auch keine VerhĂ€ltnismĂ€ĂŸigkeitskontrolle durchzufĂŒhren. Dies ist auch insoweit stringent, als dass sich die Wesensgehaltsverletzung gerade aus der dem MaßnahmenbĂŒndel zugrunde gelegten Rechtfertigungslogik ergibt, wonach andere als cisgeschlechtliche oder heterosexuelle Lebensweisen per se eine Gefahr fĂŒr die physische, psychische und sittliche IntegritĂ€t und die ungestörte Entwicklung von Kindern darstellen, was zur Stigmatisierung dieser Gruppen fĂŒhrt (Rn. 141).

Dies bedeutet jedoch keineswegs, dass der Wesensgehalt als Schatzkammer absoluter Unantastbarkeiten zu verstehen ist, die der EuGH mit Denk- und Sprechverboten fĂŒllt und die eine auf RationalitĂ€t angelegte VerhĂ€ltnismĂ€ĂŸigkeitsprĂŒfung ausschließen. Dies zeigt auch die Entscheidung LĂ©ger: Der EuGH hat dort einen Wesensgehaltsverstoß verneint, obwohl der in Rede stehende Ausschluss homosexueller MĂ€nner von der Blutspende diese als vorrangige HIV-ÜbertrĂ€ger ebenfalls stigmatisierte. Da diese Regelung jedoch in ihrem Anwendungsbereich begrenzt und naturwissenschaftlich-empirisch unterfĂŒttert war (was mittlerweile jedoch als ĂŒberholt gelten dĂŒrfte), blieb eine Rechtfertigung möglich.

Dogmatisch fragwĂŒrdig ist schließlich auch, dass der EuGH annimmt, die zur Wesensgehaltsverletzung von Art. 21 Abs. 1 GRCh angestellten ErwĂ€gungen wĂŒrden gleichermaßen fĂŒr Art. 7 und 11 GRCh gelten, sodass auch diese Eingriffe nicht zu rechtfertigen sind (Rn. 473). Dass der EuGH hierfĂŒr keinen eigenstĂ€ndigen freiheitsrechtlichen Wesensgehalt herleitet, obwohl zumindest bei Art. 11 GRCh ganz andere GrundrechtstrĂ€ger betroffen sind, könnte nahelegen, dass eine Wesensgehaltsverletzung zur Folge habe, dass auch der gleichzeitige Eingriff in ein anderes Grundrecht einer anderen Person nicht gerechtfertigt werden kann.

Das VerhĂ€ltnis von Wesensgehalt und MenschenwĂŒrde

Unter Verweis auf die insoweit erhellenden ErlĂ€uterungen des KonventsprĂ€sidiums zur Charta stellt der EuGH fest, dass die MenschenwĂŒrdegarantie zum Wesensgehalt jedes Grundrechts gehört (Rn. 486). Ausgehend von der bereits fĂŒr den Wesensgehalt des Gleichheitsgrundrechts angenommenen stigmatisierenden und marginalisierenden Wirkung der ungarischen Regelungen folgert er, dass die „besondere rechtliche Behandlung“ zur sozialen „Unsichtbarkeit“ von LGBTQ-Personen fĂŒhre, was gegen Art. 1 GRCh verstĂ¶ĂŸt (Rn. 489).

Dass der EuGH von der Wesensgehalts- auf die WĂŒrdeverletzung schließt, belegt jedoch keineswegs, dass dieser Schluss stets gezogen werden kann. Zwar ist dem Wesensgehalt jedes Grundrechts ein MenschenwĂŒrde-Anteil immanent, dieser variiert jedoch von Grundrecht zu Grundrecht. Bei wĂŒrdekonkretisierenden Grundrechten (wie Art. 21 Abs. 1 GRCh) fĂ€llt er grĂ¶ĂŸer, bei anderen kleiner aus. So wĂ€re es etwa fernliegend gewesen, aus den VerstĂ¶ĂŸen gegen den Wesensgehalt des Grundrechts auf bezahlten Jahresurlaub aus Art. 31 Abs. 2 GRCh in Bauer und MPG gleichermaßen eine Verletzung der MenschenwĂŒrde abzuleiten.

Schließlich wĂ€re es auch möglich gewesen, den Deduktionspfad von der Wesensgehalts- zur WĂŒrdeverletzung umgekehrt zu beschreiten. Dies zeigt, dass der EuGH die Wesensgehaltsgarantie als den in diesem Fall subsumtionsfĂ€higeren Begriff erachtet. Deren Bedeutung lĂ€sst sich einzelfallabhĂ€ngig unter Rekurs auf die Bedeutung eines Grundrechts fĂŒr den gesamten Verfassungsrahmen der Union sowie fĂŒr die europĂ€ische Gesellschaft i.S.d. Art. 2 S. 2 EUV induktiv herleiten. Entbehrlich wird somit, dass sich der EuGH mit philosophischen, religiösen oder ontologischen WĂŒrdekonzeptionen auseinandersetzen muss.

Die MaßstĂ€be fĂŒr eine Verletzung von Art. 2 EUV: alles eine Frage der JustiziabilitĂ€t?

Es war bereits aus dem Urteil zum KonditionalitĂ€tsmechanismus bekannt, dass die Werte des Art. 2 EUV rechtsverbindlich sind. Der EuGH beließ es daher auch bei einer argumentativen Anreicherung (Rn. 520 ff.). In bemerkenswerter Einfachheit schließt er sodann mangels Ausnahme von seinem umfassenden Mandat fĂŒr die Wahrung des Unionsrechts aus Art. 19 Abs. 1 UAbs. 1 EUV darauf, dass die Werte auch im Vertragsverletzungsverfahren vollumfĂ€nglich justiziabel sind (Rn. 537 ff.).

Interessanter als diese Entscheidung ĂŒber das „Ob“ der JustiziabilitĂ€t, die man mit guten GrĂŒnden kritisieren mag, ist jedoch das „Wie“ bzw. das „Wann“, d.h. die Frage nach den Voraussetzungen eines Verstoßes gegen Art. 2 EUV. Denn die Gefahr „verordneter Werte“ oder einer „Unitarisierung von oben“ besteht dann nicht, wenn dem Unionsrecht durch die JustiziabilitĂ€t von Art. 2 EUV ĂŒberhaupt kein zusĂ€tzlicher Zahn wĂ€chst. Gerade hinsichtlich dieser Frage lĂ€sst sich das Urteil in zwei unterschiedliche Richtungen verstehen.

Zum einen scheint der EuGH nĂ€mlich davon auszugehen, dass ein Gesetz nur gegen Art. 2 EUV verstoßen kann, wenn es gleichzeitig Normen aus dem Unionsrecht verletzt, die jene Werte nĂ€her konkretisieren (wie Art. 21 Abs. 1 GRCh den Wert der Gleichheit). So fragt er einerseits, ob die festgestellten VerstĂ¶ĂŸe „insgesamt“ einen Verstoß gegen Art. 2 EUV darstellen (Rn. 545), und stellt andererseits klar, dass nicht jeder Verstoß gegen eine solche konkretisierende Bestimmung zwangslĂ€ufig eine Verletzung des Art. 2 EUV zur Folge habe (Rn. 547).

Damit beantwortet der EuGH jedoch nicht die von der GeneralanwĂ€ltin offengelassene Frage, ob Art. 2 EUV auch außerhalb des Anwendungsbereichs des Unionsrechts eigenstĂ€ndig justiziabel sein könne (Rn. 33) – was im konkreten Fall auch nicht entscheidungserheblich war. Dennoch geht er auf die Gefahr einer Umgehung speziellerer Vorschriften wie Art. 51 GRCh ein, wonach die Charta nur im Anwendungsbereich des Unionsrechts anwendbar ist (Rn. 550), zieht daraus jedoch fĂŒr die materiell-rechtliche Auslegung von Art. 2 EUV keine Konsequenzen. Dieses Schweigen könnte somit dahin verstanden werden, dass er nichtakzessorische VerstĂ¶ĂŸe gegen Art. 2 EUV jedenfalls nicht ausschließen will (s. dazu bereits hier).

Anders als die GeneralanwĂ€ltin, die auf materieller Ebene danach gefragt hatte, wann aus VerstĂ¶ĂŸen gegen wertekonkretisierende Normen eine eigenstĂ€ndige Verletzung des Art. 2 EUV erwĂ€chst (Rn. 237 ff.), verlagert der Gerichtshof diese Frage auf die Ebene der JustiziabilitĂ€t: Aufbauend auf den ErwĂ€gungen zur Gefahr der Umgehung speziellerer Vorschriften formuliert der Gerichtshof als Voraussetzung fĂŒr die Feststellung eines Art. 2 EUV-Verstoßes im Vertragsverletzungsverfahren die offenkundige und besonders schwerwiegende Verletzung der in Art. 2 EUV genannten Werte (Rn. 551). WidersprĂŒchlich an dem Zugriff des EuGH erscheint, dass er zunĂ€chst ausschließt, den PrĂŒfungsmaßstab im Vertragsverletzungsverfahren einzuschrĂ€nken (Rn. 536-540), um ihn dann doch mit der JustiziabilitĂ€tsschwelle faktisch zu begrenzen. Im Zentrum steht dabei jedoch die Frage, ob die IdentitĂ€t der Union als gemeinsame Rechtsordnung einer durch Pluralismus gekennzeichneten Gesellschaft betroffen ist (Rn. 551). Die vom EuGH aufgestellten Voraussetzungen – offenkundige und besonders schwere VerstĂ¶ĂŸe – fungieren damit lediglich als Indikatoren dafĂŒr, dass die IdentitĂ€t der Union tatsĂ€chlich betroffen ist.

Dabei entbehrt dieser Ansatz nicht einer gewissen ZirkularitĂ€t: So begrĂŒndet der EuGH die Verletzung des Wesensgehalts von Art. 21 GRCh bereits mit dem Widerspruch zu einer pluralistischen Gesellschaft i.S.v. Art. 2 S. 2 EUV und leitet daraus den Verstoß gegen die MenschenwĂŒrde ab. Die Wesensgehalts- und MenschenwĂŒrdeverletzung resultiert somit bereits aus dem Widerspruch zu Art. 2 S. 2 EUV. Folglich bewegt sich der EuGH im Kreis, wenn er den Pluralismustopos erneut heranzieht, um eine Verletzung des Art. 2 S. 1 EUV zu begrĂŒnden (s. dazu auch hier). Dass der EuGH im Übrigen zwischen beiden SĂ€tzen der Norm durchaus unterscheidet, obwohl stets nur von Art. 2 EUV die Rede ist, zeigt sich auch darin, dass Pluralismus nicht zu denjenigen Werten gehört, gegen die der EuGH einen Verstoß feststellt (Rn. 556).

ZurĂŒck bleibt selbstverstĂ€ndlich die Frage, welchen normativen Mehrwert die Feststellung eines Art. 2 EUV-Verstoßes ĂŒber die bereits festgestellten Grundrechtsverletzungen hinaus tatsĂ€chlich entfalten soll.

Ausblick

Die Tinte, die zu der Entscheidung vergossen werden wird, dĂŒrfte ins Unermessliche gehen, erlauben die 621 Randnummern doch eine Vielzahl an Deutungsweisen und weiterfĂŒhrenden AnsĂ€tzen – lobenden wie kritischen. Ob der EuGH in Zukunft Gelegenheit haben wird, seine MaßstĂ€be zu prĂ€zisieren und weiterzuentwickeln, wird auch davon abhĂ€ngen, wie verbreitet Art. 2 EUV-RĂŒgen in kĂŒnftigen Vertragsverletzungsverfahren sein werden. Man darf hoffen, dass es möglichst wenige werden, offenbaren sie doch gravierende Defizite bei der Beachtung unverhandelbarer Werte. Leider sind solche Vorstellungen auch jenseits von OrbĂĄns Ungarn weit verbreitet. Dies offenbart bereits ein Blick in eine große deutsche Tageszeitung, in der von einem „an sich vertretbaren konservativen Ansinnen“ die Rede ist, dem OrbĂĄn „durch Maßlosigkeit“ geschadet habe – als ginge die Ausgrenzung von LGBTQ-Menschen schon in Ordnung, soweit sie nur weniger offensichtlich erfolge (dagegen lesenswert hier).

The post Wesensgehalt, WĂŒrde, Werte appeared first on Verfassungsblog.

Being Rejected is not a Crime

On 26 March 2026, the European Parliament approved the European People’s Party’s amendments to the proposed EU Return Regulation, thereby adopting its position for the negotiations with the Council and the European Commission. It did so with the support of right-wing and far-right groups, including the European Conservatives and Reformists, Patriots for Europe and Europe of Sovereign Nations. This vote is a further erosion of the EU’s so-called cordon sanitaire. As the Parliament’s and the Council’s positions (see the proposal of 5 December 2025) differ only marginally, its adoption alongside the reforms of the Common European Asylum System (CEAS) in summer 2026 appears likely. The draft, therefore, already reveals what lies ahead, as it is set to replace the Return Directive 2008/115/EC.

Declaring the Return Regulation as an “essential element for combating illegal migration” (Recital 1), the current draft considerably expands detention and introduces far-reaching derogations, particularly for third-country nationals considered to pose security risks. This ICE-ification of the EU’s migration policy and the de facto criminalisation of people on the move pose a threat to the rule of law and to the protection of fundamental rights within the EU.

Anyone can be detained

The forthcoming Return Regulation significantly widens the catalogue of grounds for detention while still leaving discretion to Member States to add even more grounds (as noted here and here). Of particular concern is that the current draft expands the definition of “risk of absconding” as grounds for detention in Article 29(3)(a). Whereas the Return Directive has delegated its interpretation to Member States, Article 30(1) provides for a detailed yet expansive list of criteria. Accordingly, a “risk of absconding” is presumed, unless proven otherwise, when one of the following criteria is fulfilled: a third-country national has entered or moved to another Member State without authorisation, is subject to a return decision issued by another Member State, fails to cooperate, violates an entry ban, or physically or violently (or even verbally in the Council’s proposal) opposes removal.

By equating “unauthorised entry” with a “risk of absconding”, the draft completely disregards that individuals seeking asylum in the EU are compelled to enter EU territory without authorisation due to the absence of legal pathways to asylum. In practice, detention is likely to be used as a default rather than exceptional measure, contrary to Article 29(1) of the current draft, which requires an individualised and proportionate assessment in each case. A framework that systematically targets conduct inherent to migration is difficult to reconcile with the EU’s general principle of proportionality.

Moreover, this approach raises serious concerns regarding the prohibition of arbitrary detention under Article 5(1)(f) of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Article 5(1)(f) ECHR allows for the detention “of a person against whom action is being taken with a view to deportation”. The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) held in Saadi v. United Kingdom that detention under Article 5(1)(f) ECHR may be lawful yet still qualify as arbitrary and thus incompatible with the Convention (para. 67). Arbitrariness is interpreted differently depending on the nature of the deprivation of liberty (para. 70). Under Article 5(1)(f) ECHR, detention is considered arbitrary where it is not carried out in good faith, particularly where it lacks a sufficient connection to its underlying purpose, where the place and conditions of detention are inappropriate, or where the detention exceeds the period reasonably required for the purpose pursued (para. 74). A system that relies on automatic detention risks lacking its underlying purpose and is therefore potentially incompatible with Article 5(1)(f) ECHR, to which Article 6 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights (CFR) corresponds.

Detention without a realistic prospect of removal

Article 29(2) of the current draft states that detention shall only be maintained for the purpose of preparing or carrying out removal of an individual. Unlike Article 15(4) of the Return Directive, the current draft does not explicitly require release if there is no longer a reasonable prospect of removal. However, this reflects a core requirement under Article 5(1)(f) ECHR and Article 6 CFR. As clarified by the ECtHR in Chahal v. United Kingdom (para. 113), detention ceases to be lawful where removal proceedings are not pursued with due diligence or where removal is no longer feasible.

The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) held in Adrar (C-313/25 PPU, para. 76) that the risk of non-refoulement (Article 33 of the Refugee Convention, Articles 4 and 18 CFR, Article 3 ECHR) precludes a reasonable prospect of removal and therefore necessitates the immediate release of the detainee. In addition, Member States are obliged under Article 47 CFR to assess ex officio whether a return decision would violate the principle of non-refoulement (see Ararat (C-156/23), para. 50).

Against this background, Member States remain under a continuing obligation to examine the risk of non-refoulement and to release individuals from detention without delay where such a risk exists.

Detention of “vulnerable persons”

Article 3(9) of the Return Directive has defined “vulnerable persons” as “minors, unaccompanied minors, disabled people, elderly people, pregnant women, single parents with minor children, and persons who have been subjected to torture, rape or other serious forms of psychological, physical or sexual violence”. This definition has not been included in the current draft. Recital 32 of the current draft states that detention shall only be imposed following an individual assessment of each case, including consideration of any situation of vulnerability. While this potentially allows for a broader and more individualised understanding of vulnerability, it remains to be seen how this individual assessment will be implemented in practice, given the simultaneous expansion of detention grounds.

Furthermore, Article 29(6) of the current draft requires Member States to consider any visible signs, statements or behaviour related to, or made or shown by, the third-country national indicating that they are a vulnerable person. However, the Commission’s original proposal, which explicitly requires that alternatives to detention are considered for vulnerable persons, has been removed in the amendments. Nevertheless, Member States remain obliged to give due weight to vulnerabilities prior to imposing detention under the general principle of proportionality of EU law, as well as the prohibition of arbitrariness under Article 5(1)(f) ECHR and Article 6 CFR.

Moreover, Article 35(1) of the current draft allows for the detention of minors, inter alia, if it is in the best interests of the child. This safeguard has previously been laid down in Article 5 of the Return Directive, stating that Member States shall take the child’s best interests into account regarding all measures. However, the premise itself is deeply flawed. Detention can never serve a child’s best interests and is incompatible with Article 37 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, as it has been discussed here and here. Although Recital 32 acknowledges that minors should, as a rule, not be detained, this safeguard remains insufficient.

Detention in third countries: “return hubs”

Article 17 of the current draft introduces detention in so-called “return hubs”. This has become a central issue in the debate on the proposed Return Regulation (see here and here). A recent development is the pending Sedrata (C-414/25) case before the CJEU concerning the Italy–Albania Protocol, in which Advocate General Emiliou delivered his Opinion on 23 April 2026 on the legality of “return hubs” under the Return Directive. According to the Advocate General, the Return Directive does not categorically preclude the detention of third-country nationals in facilities located in a third country, provided that those facilities remain under the jurisdiction of the Member State concerned and that the relevant national and EU law provisions continue to apply, ensuring certain safeguards, e.g. detention conditions for vulnerable persons (para. 89). The Advocate General also emphasises the obligation to release individuals where there is no realistic prospect of removal. As outlined above, this obligation is not explicitly provided for in the draft but continues to apply under Article 5(1)(f) ECHR and Article 6 CFR.

The forthcoming Return Regulation aligns with the broad approach endorsed by the Advocate General concerning the legality of “return hubs”. Still, it remains questionable to what extent procedural safeguards can effectively be guaranteed in third countries, given that the current draft has removed an independent monitoring mechanism originally proposed by the Commission in Article 17(2)(e).

More fundamentally, detention conditions in third countries, such as Albania, have to comply with the requirements of Article 3 ECHR and Article 4 CFR, which enshrine absolute prohibitions closely linked to the protection of human dignity (see Aranyosi and Căldăraru (C‑404/15, C‑659/15 PPU) paras. 85–87). This has not been addressed in the pending Sedrata case. Nevertheless, in 2025, the Committee Against Torture raised concerns regarding detention conditions and the treatment of migrants in Albania.

Detention of third-country nationals posing security risks

The European Commission has called for a stronger focus on third-country nationals to be considered to pose a security risk. This reflects a broader trend in which migration policy is increasingly shaped by securitisation. Unlike the Return Directive, the current draft explicitly addresses the category of “third-country nationals posing a security risk” in Article 16. Yet, this concept relies on vague notions such as public policy, public security, national security, and other broad grounds. This may allow for far-reaching derogations, such as indefinite detention (Article 16(3)(d) of the current draft), contrary to the prohibition of arbitrariness under Article 5(1)(f) ECHR and Article 6 CFR (see above).

Article 16(1) of the Return Directive has only permitted detention in prisons separated from ordinary prisoners where a Member State could not provide accommodation in a specialised detention facility. By contrast, Article 16(3)(c) of the current draft foresees that third-country nationals posing a security risk may also be “detained in prisons and, where possible, be kept separated from ordinary prisoners”. Notably, in its own proposal, the Council went even further and dropped the words “and be kept separated from ordinary prisoners”. However, the CJEU clarified in Pham (C-474/13, para. 20) that according to Recital 2 of the Return Directive, detention in conditions equivalent to those of ordinary prisoners is incompatible with the objective of a humane return system and the protection of human dignity, even when the individual consents.

Overall, this targeting of third-country nationals considered to pose security risks further reinforces the racist construction of the crimmigrant other. This development is particularly visible at the national level: in September 2025, Greece adopted Law 5226/2025 which, inter alia, imposes prison sentences of two to five years on individuals who fail to comply with a return decision within 14 days. Criminalising “illegal stay” without exhausting administrative coercive measures undermines the objectives of the Return Directive as well as the forthcoming regulation and is therefore incompatible with the principle of effet utile under Article 4(3) TEU (see El-Dridi (C-61/11 PPU), Achughbabian (C‑329/11), Sagor (C‑297/12)).

Crimmigration within the EU’s migration policy

The expanding use of detention under the Return Regulation reflects a broader shift towards crimmigration within EU migration policy. Detention is increasingly deployed beyond its preventive function. Thus, the distinction between administrative detention and criminal punishment is progressively eroding, as migration control becomes increasingly intertwined with criminal law rationales. As a result, people on the move are exposed to coercive measures comparable to those in criminal proceedings, without being protected by equivalent procedural safeguards.

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Constitutional Repair!

The unexpected happened: the hybrid regime in Hungary was swept away by elections that produced a constitution-making majority for a barely two-year-old opposition party. The magnitude of the win creates the impression of a constitutional moment. The new governing party will have 141 of 199 seats in Parliament, well above the 133 seats representing the two-thirds majority necessary for changing the Fundamental Law, and 6 more than the record of Fidesz held in this electoral system. Never since the fall of communism has participation been this high (nearly 80%, compared to the previous record of 72%), never in the democratic history of the country has any party received this many votes (3.3 million out of 7.6 million eligible voters) and never was the participation of young voters as high as this year. This was against a regime that had almost infinite resources and used its own Fundamental Law of 2011 as an instrument of everyday party politics.

Nevertheless, the impression of a constitutional moment is misleading. Certainly, the constitutional order must be repaired. Unnecessary obstacles to democratic decision-making must be eliminated, the independence of courts and important control institutions must be restored, unjustifiable limitations on fundamental rights must be lifted and the ideological contents of the Fundamental Law must be cut back. Yet it would be a mistake to unilaterally enact a new constitution, just like Fidesz did after its landslide victory over a collapsing socialist-liberal coalition in 2010. Even in the face of the catharsis of 12 April 2026 and the unprecedented authorisation for the new governing party, adopting a new constitution without a thorough and inclusive process would easily make that constitution a target for the parties of the opposition. This could seriously undermine its durability.

Hence a two-step approach seems appropriate: first, a quick constitutional repair needs to fix those elements of the Fundamental Law that are in breach of the common European values of democracy, human rights and the rule of law. In a second step, the momentum of the 2026 parliamentary elections could be used to start a bona fide inclusive constitution-making process allowing for sufficient discussion on the issues of a new constitution. What exactly this inclusive constitution-making process should look like remains to be decided; the Irish example certainly looks promising. Yet one thing is beyond doubt: whereas referenda on specific subject matters after thorough consultations are an appealing idea, putting the whole text of a new constitution to referendum would pose a disproportionately high risk. Even the best constitutional text could go down simply because in the age of social media the outcome of referenda does not depend on content if the subject matter is as complex as a constitution.

Needs and limits

The burning question is therefore what could be and what should be included in a quick constitutional repair. At first glance, the answer to the first question seems easy: legally speaking, anything could be changed as the constituent power is legally unlimited, at least domestically. Exactly this seemingly unlimited nature of the constituent power triggered the quest for binding standards and effective mechanisms at the European level when Hungarian constitutionalism seemed to be leaving the mainstream path. Indeed, there are limits on a constitution-making majority. Some of these limits are soft, that is, their crossing does not result in formal illegality, yet they are powerful arguments. They include the common heritage of constitutional democracies (“we do not do this”) and the need to avoid bad precedents for the future (“think how the next would-be autocrat could use this”). Yet there are hard legal limits as well: Article 19 (1) TEU and – as we know since last Tuesday – the values in Article 2 TEU may render certain constitutional contents illegal under EU law. A constitutional repair in a member state of the European Union has to respect these boundaries, if only for practical reasons that follow from the various conditionality mechanisms.

As regards the question of what should change, the Fundamental Law contains numerous provisions of concern, the vast majority of which have become part of the Fundamental Law through various amendments. Furthermore, however, in many cases the obstacle to the democratic functioning of the state is not the specific legislation but the actions of officials appointed on the basis of loyalty. In many cases, therefore, the problem lies not with the institutions or their powers, but with the specific manner in which those powers are exercised.

The amendments required to rectify the problematic provisions of the Fundamental Law can essentially be divided into three main groups: the first group comprises those amendments which enable the new democratic majority to exercise public power effectively and efficiently, whilst at the same time restoring the rule-of-law functioning of independent institutions. This group includes, for example, the issue of cardinal laws and the restoration of the independence of constitutional adjudication and of the judiciary. The second group comprises those amendments which remove restrictions on fundamental rights that are not accepted in European constitutional democracies, such as the possibility of suspending citizenship under Article G(3) of the Fundamental Law, the definition of family in Article L of the Fundamental Law or the rule set out in Article XVI(1) of the Fundamental Law, which places the very broadly defined rights of children above all other fundamental rights (ad absurdum, even the prohibition of torture). The third group consists of constitutional provisions of an ideological nature but with normative effect, such as the preamble referred to as the national avowal of faith and the elevation of this to a standard of interpretation in Article R(3).

The task is thus to find solutions that respond to the needs of constitutional repair. Those solutions shall respect well-established traditions of constitutional democracies, do not create dangerous precedents, and be in conformity with common European standards.

All this has to be done in the context of dismantling a hybrid regime. We are certainly not talking about an ordinary constitutional amendment process, nor can we assume that the precedents of dismantling fully-fledged dictatorships are automatically relevant. This requires modifying the traditional theory of transitional justice.

Here are some of the most important institutional issues that might require consideration also on the basis of the above-described limits.

The stability of the constitution: the electoral system

The Fundamental Law can be amended with a two-thirds majority in the unicameral Parliament. In parallel, the current electoral system has thus far always yielded a two-thirds majority for the winner (2014, 2018 and 2022 for Fidesz, 2026 for the opposition). The Fundamental Law thus never truly functioned as a paramount law. This combination allowed for fifteen amendments in fifteen years. The restoration of constitutional democracy means restoring the stability of the constitution.

One way to go about this is to make constitutional amendments more difficult. Yet in the above described two steps approach for a new constitution-making, such hardening of the current Fundamental Law does not seem useful.

What can and must be changed swiftly is the electoral system. Naturally, a comprehensive electoral reform goes beyond the scope of a constitutional repair, even if the reform were to consist of the introduction of a proportional electoral system. Yet a quick fix can and shall include the abolition of winner compensation, without which there would not have been a two-thirds majority in 2014, 2018 and 2022. This amendment can be implemented at the statutory level. At the same time, it is necessary to enshrine in the Fundamental Law clear guarantees against such grave violations of the equality of the vote.

Besides, party financing and the use of public money for campaign purposes must be revisited. In view of the abuse of public funds for campaigning a constitutional guarantee is needed to outlaw the use of budgetary resources for party-political messages.

Radically narrowing the scope of cardinal laws

A closely related question is the issue of cardinal laws. Restoring the democratic functioning of the state requires, above all, addressing this issue.

Although the term ‘cardinal laws’ is archaic, and there are similar instruments in other democratic countries, the legal institution itself is a specific product of the collapse of socialism: originally termed ‘constitutional laws’ and requiring a two-thirds majority for adoption, these acts functioned during the transitional period as quasi-supplements to the Constitution, ensuring that rules which were not formally part of the Constitution nevertheless possessed constitutional status. At the same time, rules adopted by a qualified majority restrict the democratic majority of the day from exercising public power in accordance with its democratic mandate.

Currently, the Fundamental Law prescribes cardinal-law regulation in 38 areas, and on this basis, some laws are in total classified as cardinal, whilst an even greater number of laws are classified partly as cardinal. The extent of fundamental legislation is illustrated by the fact that the list of fundamental laws enacted since the adoption of the Fundamental Law runs to 69 pages in the document available on the National Assembly’s website.

Therefore, as part of a constitutional repair, the scope of matters falling under cardinal legislation must first and foremost be radically reduced: only those subject matters that are absolutely essential for the functioning of constitutional democracy shall be subject to this higher majority. The laws on the electoral system, the municipalities, the Constitutional Court, and the organisation of the judiciary could be examples for this.

Restoring the effective and independent functioning of the Constitutional Court

The restoration of the effective and independent functioning of constitutional adjudication is necessary both to ensure the constitutional functioning of all legislative power and to prevent the Constitutional Court from unjustifiably blocking legislation for party-political reasons.

With regard to the Constitutional Court, the problem lies mostly not with the rules governing its jurisdiction and procedures but with the fact that currently 11 of the 15 judges were appointed only by the government majority, without the consent of the opposition, and at the same time the age limit of 70 for constitutional judges was abolished for political and personal reasons.

A comprehensive reform would certainly be more effective, whereby the Fundamental Law would set the number of Constitutional Court judges at 11, would provide for the termination of the mandates of all incumbent constitutional judges after a certain transitional period and, at the same time, would lay down electoral rules for the election of constitutional judges that would require a consensus between the governing parties, which hold a two-thirds majority, and the opposition. There is the possibility, however, that such a regulation would be used by the new opposition (Fidesz) to obstruct the election of justices.

As part of a constitutional repair, therefore, the reintroduction of the 70-year age limit for constitutional judges could be a solution, at the level of the Fundamental Law, with effect extending to judges currently in office. As a result of this measure, out of the 15 judges 4 new judges would be elected by the new government, whereas 7 judges who had been appointed by Fidesz would remain on the Court, together with further 4 judges who had been appointed by Fidesz with the consent of the opposition. Such an amendment could not be interpreted as court packing or takeover and would not necessarily be regarded as a disproportionate restriction on judicial independence, given that this age limit is typically applied in Western European constitutional courts. The previous, politically motivated ad hominem abolition of the age limit would also justify its application to sitting judges.

Naturally, common European standards on judicial independence both under the ECHR (as articulated by the ECtHR and the Venice Commission) and EU law protect judges against early dismissal. Whilst this guarantee is not wholly absolute, there can only be exceptions to that principle if they are warranted by legitimate and compelling grounds, subject to the principle of proportionality. Arguably, creating a truly independent Constitutional Court is such a legitimate and compelling reason, and the circumstances and guarantees surrounding the reform in both cases could ensure respect for the principle of proportionality. All the more so, as the reform should also include repealing Article 37(4) and (5) of the Fundamental Law, which excludes the Constitutional Court’s jurisdiction in budgetary and tax matters.

Restoring the independence of the judiciary

Although the situation in Hungary cannot be compared to Poland, the independence of the ordinary judiciary has been a point of concern. Most importantly, consecutive rule of law reports (see 2021, 2022, 2023) have criticised the rules that made possible the election of the president of the KĂșria (the Supreme Court of Hungary). Milestone 214 (which is a super milestone) of the RRF Plan of Hungary required changing these rules. In fact, two consecutive amendments of laws were necessary to make the current president eligible, and even the National Judicial Council voted with an overwhelming majority against his election.

Naturally, the protection against early dismissal under the common European standards is strong. Still, it must be examined whether new constitutional rules could allow for the removal of the sitting president of the KĂșria because his election was made possible by ad hominem legislation and against the vote of the National Judicial Council. Arguably, this solution is not in violation of common European standards, especially if formal guarantees were to be included in the Fundamental Law that require the consent of the National Judicial Council for the election of the president of the KĂșria.

Further quick judicial reforms should include reducing the excessive competences of the president of the National Judicial Office and extending the rights of self-governance of the judges. These administrative changes could be carried out without significant limits imposed by European standards, as long as they increase rather than reduce judicial independence.

Media

Restoring press freedom and the independence of public media is essential for the functioning of a democracy based on the rule of law. This is all the more necessary as there is currently an infringement procedure underway against Hungary based on the European Media Freedom Act and the Audiovisual Media Services Directive.

A solution is needed that, as far as possible, excludes bias over the long term, whilst also enabling the elimination of the current bias. The long-term interest is therefore the imperative of broad consensus, whilst the short-term interest is effective decision-making. A complete overhaul of the public service media and national media regulatory authorities seems inevitable, but the new regulations must ensure pluralism in both content and the composition of the various supervisory bodies. How this can be done in a polarised country like Hungary is one of the major challenges.

Accountability and the Public Prosecutor’s Office

One of the central demands of the electorate is accountability for the corruption-related crimes of the past 16 years. This is a matter of effective criminal prosecution and not of constitutional repair per se. Yet effective prosecution requires effective prosecutorial services. That Hungary will join the European Public Prosecutor’s Office is a given. Renewing the Public Prosecutor’s Office may also be necessary. A comprehensive reform is certainly beyond the limits of a quick constitutional repair. What could be done is to transfer the right to nominate the Prosecutor General by constitutional amendment from the President of the Republic to the Minister of Justice, thereby reflecting the executive branch’s responsibility for law enforcement.

Rationalisation of constitutional reservations regarding EU law

When Article E) of the Fundamental Law was worded, it essentially reproduced the text of Section 2/A of the previous Constitution almost word for word. This text also contained reservations regarding the primacy of EU law based on the practices of other EU member states – essentially the human rights reservation and the ultra vires reservation known from the case law of the Bundesverfassungsgericht. These reservations could be addressed through interpretation without jeopardising our EU membership. The seventh amendment to the Fundamental Law, however, expanded the reservations to include provisions, some of which, if taken seriously, could call into question the fulfilment of our membership obligations. Their deletion is justified.

Safeguards for restrictions on fundamental rights

Article 52(2) of the Fundamental Law currently allows for the complete suspension of virtually all fundamental rights under a special legal order. It is therefore necessary to stipulate, following the model of Article 15(1) of the ECHR, that derogations are permitted only to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation.

Building the common European standards of constitutional repair

The above list is far from exclusive, nor are the analyses of the issues complete. In the coming weeks many contributions in this symposium will expand on them from various perspectives. Whatever the outcome, not only the rules of the Hungarian Fundamental Law will change. The body of common European standards of constitutional repair will also evolve just as the standards applicable to constitutional crises have evolved. Ultimately, Hungary can contribute to the evolution of European law, now from a more positive angle.

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